Title
Toxicokinetics of Bone Lead
Author
M B Rabinowitz
Publication
Environmental Health Perspectives, Feb 1991; 91: 33–37
Link
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1519353/
Abstract
This article discusses bone as a source of lead to the rest of the body and as a record of past lead exposure. Bone lead levels generally increase with age at rates dependent on the skeletal site and lead exposure. After occupational exposure, the slow decline in blood lead, a 5- to 19-year half-life, reflects the long skeletal half-life. Repeated measurements of bone lead demonstrate the slow elimination of lead from bone. Stable isotope ratios have revealed many details of skeletal uptake and subsequent release. The bulk turnover rates for compact bone are about 2% per year and 8% for spine. Turnover activity varies with age and health. Even though lead approximates calcium, radium, strontium, barium, fluorine, and other bone seekers, the rates for each are different. A simple, two-pool (bone and blood) kinetic model is presented with proposed numerical values for the changes in blood lead levels that occur with changes in turnover rates. Two approaches are offered to further quantify lead turnover. One involves a study of subjects with known past exposure. Changes in the ratio of blood lead to bone lead with time would reflect the course of bone lead availability. Also, stable isotopes and subjects who move from one geographical area to another offer opportunities. Sequential isotope measurements would indicate how much of the lead in blood is from current exposure or bone stores, distinct from changes in absorption or excretion.
Title
Cellular and Molecular Toxicity of Lead in Bone
Author
G Pounds, G J Long & J F Rosen
Publication
Environmental Health Perspectives, Feb 1991; 91: 17–32.
Link
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1519349/
Abstract
To fully understand the significance of bone as a target tissue of lead toxicity, as well as a reservoir of systemic lead, it is necessary to define the effects of lead on the cellular components of bone. Skeletal development and the regulation of skeletal mass are ultimately determined by the four different types of cells: osteoblasts, lining cells, osteoclasts, and osteocytes. These cells, which line and penetrate the mineralized matrix, are responsible for matrix formation, mineralization, and bone resorption, under the control of both systemic and local factors. Systemic components of regulation include parathyroid hormone, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, and calcitonin: local regulators include numerous cytokines and growth factors. Lead intoxication directly and indirectly alters many aspects of bone cell function. First, lead may indirectly alter bone cell function through changes in the circulating levels of those hormones, particularly 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, which modulate bone cell function. These hormonal changes have been well established in clinical studies, although the functional significance remains to be established. Second, lead may directly alter bone cell function by perturbing the ability of bone cells to respond to hormonal regulation. For example, the 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-stimulated synthesis of osteocalcin, a calcium-binding protein synthesized by osteoblastic bone cells, is inhibited by low levels of lead. Impaired osteocalcin production may inhibit new bone formation, as well as the functional coupling of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Third, lead may impair the ability of cells to synthesize or secrete other components of the bone matrix, such as collagen or bone sialoproteins (osteopontin). Finally, lead may directly effect or substitute for calcium in the active sites of the calcium messenger system, resulting in loss of physiological regulation. The effects of lead on the recruitment and differentiation of bone cells remains to be established. Compartmental analysis indicates that the kinetic distribution and behavior of intracellular lead in osteoblasts and osteoclasts is similar to several other cell types. Many of the toxic effects of lead on bone cell function may be produced by perturbation of the calcium and cAMP messenger systems in these cells.